Enzyme Immobilization by Inkjet Printing on Reagentless Biosensors for Electrochemical Phosphate Detection.

Enzyme-based biosensors commonly utilize the drop-casting method for their surface modification. However, the drawbacks of this technique, such as low reproducibility, coffee ring effects, and challenges in mass production, hinder its application. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel surface functionalization strategy of enzyme crosslinking via inkjet printing for reagentless enzyme-based biosensors. This method includes printing three functional layers onto a screen-printed electrode: the enzyme layer, crosslinking layer, and protective layer. Nanomaterials and substrates are preloaded together during our inkjet printing. Inkjet-printed electrodes feature a uniform enzyme deposition, ensuring high reproducibility and superior electrochemical performance compared to traditional drop-casted ones. The resultant biosensors display high sensitivity, as well as a broad linear response in the physiological range of the serum phosphate. This enzyme crosslinking method has the potential to extend into various enzyme-based biosensors through altering functional layer components.

Graphene derivative-based ink advances inkjet printing technology for fabrication of electrochemical sensors and biosensors.

The field of biosensing would significantly benefit from a disruptive technology enabling flexible manufacturing of uniform electrodes. Inkjet printing holds promise for this, although realizing full electrode manufacturing with this technology remains challenging. We introduce a nitrogen-doped carboxylated graphene ink (NGA-ink) compatible with commercially available printing technologies. The water-based and additive-free NGA-ink was utilized to produce fully inkjet-printed electrodes (IPEs), which demonstrated successful electrochemical detection of the important neurotransmitter dopamine. The cost-effectiveness of NGA-ink combined with a total cost per electrode of $0.10 renders it a practical solution for customized electrode manufacturing. Furthermore, the high carboxyl group content of NGA-ink (13 wt%) presents opportunities for biomolecule immobilization, paving the way for the development of advanced state-of-the-art biosensors. This study highlights the potential of NGA inkjet-printed electrodes in revolutionizing sensor technology, offering an affordable, scalable alternative to conventional electrochemical systems.

A water transfer printing method for contact lenses surface 2D MXene modification to resist bacterial infection and inflammation.

Contact lenses (CLs) are prone to adhesion and invasion by pollutants and pathogenic bacteria, leading to infection and inflammatory diseases. However, the functionalization of CL (biological functions such as anti-fouling, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory) and maintaining its transparency still face great challenges. In this work, as a member of the MXenes family, vanadium carbide (V2C) is modified onto CL via a water transfer printing method after the formation of a tightly arranged uniform film at the water surface under the action of the Marangoni effect. The coating interface is stable owing to the electrostatic forces. The V2C-modified CL (V2C@CL) maintains optical clarity while providing good biocompatibility, strong antioxidant properties, and anti-inflammatory activities. In vitro antibacterial experiments indicate that V2C@CL shows excellent performance in bacterial anti-adhesion, sterilization, and anti-biofilm formation. Last, V2C@CL displays notable advantages of bacteria elimination and inflammation removal in infectious keratitis treatment.

Printable and flexible integrated sensing systems for wireless healthcare.

The rapid development of wearable sensing devices and artificial intelligence has enabled portable and wireless tracking of human health, fulfilling the promise of digitalized healthcare applications. To achieve versatile design and integration of multi-functional modules including sensors and data transmission units onto various flexible platforms, printable technologies emerged as some of the most promising strategies. This review first introduces the commonly utilized printing technologies, followed by discussion of the printable ink formulations and flexible substrates to ensure reliable device fabrication and system integration. The advances of printable sensors for body status monitoring are then discussed. Moreover, the integration of wireless data transmission via printable approaches is also presented. Finally, the challenges in achieving printable sensing devices and wireless integrated systems with competitive performances are considered, so as to realize their practical applications for personalized healthcare.

Digitally Controlled Printing of Bioink Barriers for Paper-Based Analytical Devices: An Environmentally Friendly One-Step Approach.

The patterning of hydrophilic paper with hydrophobic materials has emerged as an interesting method for the fabrication of paper-based devices (PADs). Herein, we demonstrate a digitally automated, easy, low-cost, eco-friendly, and readily available method to create highly hydrophobic barriers on paper that can be promptly employed with PADs by simply using a bioink made with rosin, a commercially available natural resin obtained from conifer trees. The bioink can be easily delivered with the use of a ballpoint pen to produce water- and organic solvent-resistant barriers, showing superior properties when compared to other methods such as wax-printing or permanent markers. The approach enables the pen to be attached to a commercially available cutting printer to perform the semiautomated fabrication of hydrophobic barriers for PADs. With the aid of digitally controlled optimization, together with features of machine learning and design of experiments, we show a thorough investigation on the barrier strength that can be further adjusted to the desired application's needs. Then, we explored the barrier sturdiness across various uses, such as wide range aqueous pH sensing and the harsh acidic/organic conditions needed for the colorimetric detection of cholecalciferol.

Customizable orodispersible films: Inkjet printing and data matrix encoding for personalized hydrocortisone dosing.

The aim of this study was to exploit the versatility of inkjet printing to develop flexible doses of drug-loaded orodispersible films that encoded information in a data matrix pattern, and to introduce a specialised data matrix-generator software specifically focused on the healthcare sector. Pharma-inks (drug-loaded inks) containing hydrocortisone (HC) were developed and characterised based on their rheological properties and drug content. Different strategies were investigated to improve HC solubility: formation of ß-cyclodextrin complexes, Soluplus® based micelles, and the use of co-solvent systems. The software automatically adapted the data matrix size and identified the number of layers for printing. HC content deposited in each film layer was measured, and it was found that the proportion of co-solvent used directly affected the drug solubility and simultaneously played a role in the modification of the viscosity and surface tension of the inks. The formation of ß-cyclodextrin complexes improved the drug quantity deposited in each layer. On the contrary, micelle-based inks were not suitable for printing. Orodispersible films containing flexible and low doses of personalised HC were successfully prepared, and the development of a code generator software oriented to medical use provided an additional, innovative, and revolutionary advantage to personalised medicine safety and accessibility.

4D printing for biomedical applications.

While three-dimensional (3D) printing excels at fabricating static constructs, it fails to emulate the dynamic behavior of native tissues or the temporal programmability desired for medical devices. Four-dimensional (4D) printing is an advanced additive manufacturing technology capable of fabricating constructs that can undergo pre-programmed changes in shape, property, or functionality when exposed to specific stimuli. In this Perspective, we summarize the advances in materials chemistry, 3D printing strategies, and post-printing methodologies that collectively facilitate the realization of temporal dynamics within 4D-printed soft materials (hydrogels, shape-memory polymers, liquid crystalline elastomers), ceramics, and metals. We also discuss and present insights about the diverse biomedical applications of 4D printing, including tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, drug delivery, in vitro models, and medical devices. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and emphasize the importance of an application-driven design approach to enable the clinical translation and widespread adoption of 4D printing.

Research progress in the degradation of printing and dyeing wastewater using chitosan based composite photocatalytic materials.

The surge in economic growth has spurred the expansion of the textile industry, resulting in a continuous rise in the discharge of printing and dyeing wastewater. In contrast, the photocatalytic method harnesses light energy to degrade pollutants, boasting low energy consumption and high efficiency. Nevertheless, traditional photocatalysts suffer from limited light responsiveness, inadequate adsorption capabilities, susceptibility to agglomeration, and hydrophilicity, thereby curtailing their practical utility. Consequently, integrating appropriate carriers with traditional photocatalysts becomes imperative. The combination of chitosan and semiconductor materials stands out by reducing band gap energy, augmenting reactive sites, mitigating carrier recombination, bolstering structural stability, and notably advancing the photocatalytic degradation of printing and dyeing wastewater. This study embarks on an exploration by initially elucidating the technical principles, merits, and demerits of prevailing printing and dyeing wastewater treatment methodologies, with a focal emphasis on the photocatalytic approach. It delineates the constraints encountered by traditional photocatalysts in practical scenarios. Subsequently, it comprehensively encapsulates the research advancements and elucidates the reaction mechanisms underlying chitosan based composite materials employed in treating printing and dyeing wastewater. Finally, this work casts a forward-looking perspective on the future research trajectory of chitosan based photocatalysts, particularly in the realm of industrial applications.

Ionogels for flexible conductive substrates and their application in biosensing.

Ionogels are highly conductive gels made from ionic liquids dispersed in a matrix made of organic or inorganic materials. Ionogels are known for high ionic conductivity, flexibility, high thermal and electrochemical stability. These characteristics make them suitable for sensing and biosensing applications. This review discusses about the two main constituents, ionic liquids and matrix, used to make ionogels and effect of these materials on the characteristics of ionogels. Here, the material properties like mechanical, electrochemical and stability are discussed for both polymer matrix and ionic liquid. We have briefly described about the fabrication methods like 3D printing, sol-gel, blade coating, spin coating, aerosol jet printing etc., used to make films or coating of these ionogels. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are also briefly summarized. Finally, the last section provides a few examples of application of flexible ionogels in areas like wearables, human-machine interface, electronic skin and detection of biological molecules.

Achieving Reliable and Ultrafast Memristors via Artificial Filaments in Silk Fibroin.

The practical implementation of memristors in neuromorphic computing and biomimetic sensing suffers from unexpected temporal and spatial variations due to the stochastic formation and rupture of conductive filaments (CFs). Here, the biocompatible silk fibroin (SF) is patterned with an on-demand nanocone array by using thermal scanning probe lithography (t-SPL) to guide and confine the growth of CFs in the silver/SF/gold (Ag/SF/Au) memristor. Benefiting from the high fabrication controllability, cycle-to-cycle (temporal) standard deviation of the set voltage for the structured memristor is significantly reduced by ≈95.5% (from 1.535 to 0.0686 V) and the device-to-device (spatial) standard deviation is also reduced to 0.0648 V. Besides, the statistical relationship between the structural nanocone design and the resultant performance is confirmed, optimizing at the small operation voltage (≈0.5 V) and current (100 nA), ultrafast switching speed (sub-100 ns), large on/off ratio (104 ), and the smallest switching slope (SS < 0.01 mV dec-1 ). Finally, the short-term plasticity and leaky integrated-and-fire behavior are emulated, and a reliable thermal nociceptor system is demonstrated for practical neuromorphic applications.

Integrated Ink Printing Paper Based Self-Powered Electrochemical Multimodal Biosensing (IFP-Multi ) with ChatGPT-Bioelectronic Interface for Personalized Healthcare Management.

Personalized healthcare management is an emerging field that requires the development of environment-friendly, integrated, and electrochemical multimodal devices. In this study, the concept of integrated paper-based biosensors (IFP-Multi ) for personalized healthcare management is introduced. By leveraging ink printing technology and a ChatGPT-bioelectronic interface, these biosensors offer ultrahigh areal-specific capacitance (74633 mF cm-2 ), excellent mechanical properties, and multifunctional sensing and humidity power generation capabilities. More importantly, the IFP-Multi devices have the potential to simulate deaf-mute vocalization and can be integrated into wearable sensors to detect muscle contractions and bending motions. Moreover, they also enable monitoring of physiological signals from various body parts, such as the throat, nape, elbow, wrist, and knee, and successfully record sharp and repeatable signals generated by muscle contractions. In addition, the IFP-Multi devices demonstrate self-powered handwriting sensing and moisture power generation for sweat-sensing applications. As a proof-of-concept, a GPT 3.5 model-based fine-tuning and prediction pipeline that utilizes recorded physiological signals through IFP-Multi is showcased, enabling artificial intelligence with multimodal sensing capabilities for personalized healthcare management. This work presents a promising and ecofriendly approach to developing paper-based electrochemical multimodal devices, paving the way for a new era of healthcare advancements.

Multifunctional Micromachines Constructed by Combining Multiple Protein-Based Components with Different Functions.

Untethered mobile micromachines have considerable potential to realize more effective and minimally invasive medicine. Although diverse medical micromachines have been reported over the past few decades, these machines were developed for performing only specific tasks and the functions imparted to them were limited to a few. Hence, the methodologies for imparting a wide variety of functions to machines have not been fully explored. In this study, a novel construction strategy for the multifunctional micromachines is presented, where a specific function can be added to the machine in one step by directly combining the protein-based component, possessing the biological function of constituent proteins, to an arbitrary position of the machine by using an inkjet printing technique. As a proof-of-concept demonstration, various types of machines were constructed by combining multiple components with different functions. These constructed machines successfully performed functions as diverse as enzyme-powered self-propulsion, collection of target objects, including the bilirubin and living cells, enzyme-mediated conversion of substrate molecules to different ones, magnetic guidance, and release of anti-inflammatory drug diapocynin. The study's progressive approach as well as multifunctional and biocompatible machines composed of proteins will profoundly impact the development of intelligent machines equipped with multiplex sophisticated functionalities.

Cell Patterning Technology on Polymethyl Methacrylate through Controlled Physicochemical and Biochemical Functionalization.

In recent years, innovative cell-based biosensing systems have been developed, showing impact in healthcare and life science research. Now, there is a need to design mass-production processes to enable their commercialization and reach society. However, current protocols for their fabrication employ materials that are not optimal for industrial production, and their preparation requires several chemical coating steps, resulting in cumbersome protocols. We have developed a simplified two-step method for generating controlled cell patterns on PMMA, a durable and transparent material frequently employed in the mass manufacturing of microfluidic devices. It involves air plasma and microcontact printing. This approach allows the formation of well-defined cell arrays on PMMA without the need for blocking agents to define the patterns. Patterns of various adherent cell types in dozens of individual cell cultures, allowing the regulation of cell-material and cell-cell interactions, were developed. These cell patterns were integrated into a microfluidic device, and their viability for more than 20 h under controlled flow conditions was demonstrated. This work demonstrated the potential to adapt polymeric cytophobic materials to simple fabrication protocols of cell-based microsystems, leveraging the possibilities for commercialization.

Two-dimensional printing of nanoparticles as a promising therapeutic method for personalized drug administration.

The necessity for personalized patient treatment has drastically increased since the contribution of genes to the differences in physiological and metabolic state of individuals have been exposed. Different approaches have been considered so far in order to satisfy all of the diversities in patient needs, yet none of them have been fully implemented thus far. In this framework, various types of 2D printing technologies have been identified to offer some potential solutions for personalized medication, which development is increasing rapidly. Accurate drug-on-demand deposition, the possibility of consuming multiple drug substances in one product and adjusting individual drug concentration are just some of the few benefits over existing bulk pharmaceuticals manufacture, which printing technologies brings. With inclusion of nanotechnology by printing nanoparticles from its dispersions some further opportunities such as controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release or targeted and dose depending on drug delivery were highlighted. Yet, there are still some challenges to be solved before such products can reach the pharmaceutical market. In those terms mostly chemical, physical as well as microbiological stability concerns should be answered, with which 2D printing technology could meet the treatment needs of every individual and fulfill some existing drawbacks of large-scale batch production of pharmaceuticals we possess today.

Cross-Scale Topography Achieved by MOPL with Positive Photoresist to Regulate the Cell Behavior.

Cross-scale micro-nano structures play an important role in semiconductors, MEMS, chemistry, and cell biology. Positive photoresist is widely used in lithography due to the advantages of high resolution and environmental friendliness. However, cross-scale micro-nano structures of positive photoresist are difficult to flexibly pattern, and the feature resolution is limited by the optical diffraction. Here, cross-scale patterned micro-nano structures are achieved using the positive photoresist based on the femtosecond laser maskless optical projection lithography (MOPL) technique. The dependence between exposure dose and groove width is comprehensively analyzed, and a feature size of 112 nm is obtained at 110 µW. Furthermore, large-area topography considering cell size is efficiently fabricated by the MOPL technique, which enables the regulation of cell behavior. The proposed protocol of achieving cross-scale structures with the exact size by MOPL of positive photoresist would provide new avenues for potential applications in nanoelectronics and tissue engineering.

Degradation behavior of 2D auxetic structure with biodegradable polymer under mechanical stress.

Coronary heart disease is serious harm to human health. Vascular scaffold implantation is the main treatment. Biodegradable polymers are widely used in vascular scaffolds for good biodegradability and biocompatibility. However, whether the mechanical properties and radial expansion ability can successfully implant the scaffold without acute elastic retraction remains to be further studied. Because of the unique deformation mechanism, shear resistance, and resilience, auxetic structures can effectively avoid the restenosis of degraded vascular scaffolds. Firstly, the plane isotropic and plane anisotropic auxetic structural scaffolds were designed. The control structures (traditional structures) scaffolds were taken as the contrast. PCL was used to prepare the vascular auxetic by 3D printing. The printing parameters of fused deposition 3D printing, such as printing temperature, printing speed, and printing pressure, were studied to determine the optimal printing parameters of PCL. A self-assembled cyclic tensile stress loading device was used to investigate the degradation behavior of different scaffolds under different sizes of cyclic tensile stress, such as surface morphology, pH changes, mass loss rate, and mechanical properties. The increase of stress, surface roughness, and mass loss rate of the scaffolds all showed an increasing trend. pH gradually decreased from the fifth week, and the decrease was proportional to the stress. A large level of stress loading intensifies the decline of elastic modulus and the ultimate strength of the scaffold. In conclusion, the increase of periodic tensile stress will accelerate the degradation of scaffolds, and the degradation behavior of scaffolds with different configurations is different. The degradation rate of dilatant scaffolds was higher than that of control scaffolds, and the degradation rate of anisotropic auxetic scaffolds was higher than that of isotropic auxetic scaffolds, which provides a theoretical reference for the application of auxetic structure in the degradation of vascular scaffolds.

Massively Parallel High-Throughput Single-Cell Patterning and Large Biomolecular Delivery in Mammalian Cells Using Light Pulses.

The recent advancements of single-cell analysis have significantly enhanced the ability to understand cellular physiology when compared to bulk cellular analysis. Here a massively parallel single-cell patterning and very large biomolecular delivery is reported. Micro-pillar polydimethyl siloxane stamp with different diameters (40-100 µm with 1 cm × 1 cm patterning area) is fabricated and then imprint distinct proteins and finally pattern single-cell to small clusters of cells depending on the micro-pillar diameters. The maximum patterning efficiency is achieved 99.7% for SiHa, 96.75% for L929, and 98.6% for MG63 cells, for the 100 µm micro-pillar stamp. For intracellular delivery of biomolecules into the patterned cells, a titanium micro-dish device is aligned on top of the cells and exposed by infrared light pulses. The platform successfully delivers small to very large biomolecules such as PI dyes (668 Da), dextran 3000 Da, siRNA (20-24 bp), and large size enzymes (464 KDa) in SiHa, L929 and MG63 cells. The delivery efficiency for PI dye, Dextran 3000, siRNA, and enzyme for patterned cells are ≈95 ± 3%, 97 ± 1%, 96 ± 1% and 94 ± 3%, with cell viability of 98 ± 1%. Thus, the platform is compact, robust, easy for printing, and potentially applicable for single-cell therapy and diagnostics.

On-site growth of perovskite nanocrystal arrays for integrated nanodevices.

Despite remarkable progress in the development of halide perovskite materials and devices, their integration into nanoscale optoelectronics has been hindered by a lack of control over nanoscale patterning. Owing to their tendency to degrade rapidly, perovskites suffer from chemical incompatibility with conventional lithographic processes. Here, we present an alternative, bottom-up approach for precise and scalable formation of perovskite nanocrystal arrays with deterministic control over size, number, and position. In our approach, localized growth and positioning is guided using topographical templates of controlled surface wettability through which nanoscale forces are engineered to achieve sub-lithographic resolutions. With this technique, we demonstrate deterministic arrays of CsPbBr3 nanocrystals with tunable dimensions down to <50 nm and positional accuracy <50 nm. Versatile, scalable, and compatible with device integration processes, we then use our technique to demonstrate arrays of nanoscale light-emitting diodes, highlighting the new opportunities that this platform offers for perovskites' integration into on-chip nanodevices.

Fabric-Based Electrochemical Glucose Sensor with Integrated Millifluidic Path from a Hydrophobic Batik Wax.

In recent years, measuring and monitoring analyte concentrations continuously, frequently, and periodically has been a vital necessity for certain individuals. We developed a cotton-based millifluidic fabric-based electrochemical device (mFED) to monitor glucose continuously and evaluate the effects of mechanical deformation on the device's electrochemical performance. The mFED was fabricated using stencil printing (thick film method) for patterning the electrodes and wax-patterning to make the reaction zone. The analytical performance of the device was carried out using the chronoamperometry method at a detection potential of -0.2 V. The mFED has a linear working range of 0-20 mM of glucose, with LOD and LOQ of 0.98 mM and 3.26 mM. The 3D mFED shows the potential to be integrated as a wearable sensor that can continuously measure glucose under mechanical deformation.